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How Have Background Checks Changed Over The Years

Written By Tuesday, April 26, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Background checks for individual sales of firearms in the United States

This commodity is most groundwork checks for private sales of firearms in the United States. For background checks in general, run into Background check.

Proposals for universal groundwork checks would require almost all firearms transactions in the Usa to exist recorded and go through the National Instant Criminal Groundwork Check System (NICS), endmost what is sometimes called the private sale exemption. Universal groundwork checks are non required by U.Southward. federal law, just at to the lowest degree 22 states and the Commune of Columbia currently require background checks for at least some private sales of firearms.

Groundwork [edit]

Federal police force requires background checks (through the National Instant Criminal Background Check Organization) only for guns sold through licensed firearm dealers, which account for 78% of all gun sales in the United States. This figure was published in a 2017 study by the Register of Internal Medicine which, using a 2015 survey, found that 22% of recent gun transfers (purchased and nonpurchased) were completed without a groundwork cheque.[ane] The authors noted that while this number was less than in years by, information technology nonetheless indicates that millions of American adults are able to obtain firearms without background checks.[1] The electric current federal constabulary allows people non "engaged in the business organisation" of selling firearms to sell firearms without a license or records. A 2008 study from the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence (CSGV) stated that the National Instant Criminal Background Check Organization had prevented over 1.4 1000000 felons and other prohibited persons from purchasing firearms in the years between 1994-2005.[2] According to the CSGV, the police too has a prohibitive result, that deters illegal purchases.

In November 1998, President Beak Clinton directed the U.Southward. Secretary of the Treasury and the U.S. Chaser General (A.One thousand.) to provide recommendations concerning the fact that 25 percent or more than of sellers at gun shows are not required to run groundwork checks on potential buyers. This was called the gun show loophole.[iii] : 3, 12 [4] [v] : 27 Two months afterwards, Gun Shows: Brady Checks and Crime Gun Traces was released.[three] The Secretary and the A.Thou. made 7 recommendations, including expanding the definition of "gun prove," and reviewing the definition of "engaged in the business".

After the Columbine Loftier School massacre in April 1999, gun shows and background checks became a focus of national debate.[half-dozen] [7] [8] In May, the executive vice president of the National Burglarize Association (NRA) told the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Offense, "We think it is reasonable to provide mandatory, instant criminal background checks for every sale at every gun bear witness."[nine] : 118 Those concerned about the shows believed they were a source of illegally trafficked firearms.[10] [nb 1] Efforts to reverse a key feature of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) by requiring criminal background checks and buy records on individual sales at gun shows, which had become prolific in the U.South. since the police force'southward passage in 1986, were unsuccessful.[11] [12]

Private sale exemption [edit]

In the August 5, 2010, event of The New England Periodical of Medicine, researchers Garen J. Wintemute, Anthony A. Braga, and David M. Kennedy, wrote that gun shows account for only a fraction of all U.S. gun sales and that a more than effective strategy would be to make all individual-party gun sales become through the screening and record-keeping processes that FFL dealers are required to do.[13] Their report concluded:

Drawbacks with respect to expense and inconvenience notwithstanding, 83% of self-reported gun owners and 87% of the general population endorsed regulation for all private-party gun sales in a 2008 poll that was conducted for the advancement organization Mayors Confronting Illegal Guns. Gun owners gave stronger support to this all-inclusive approach than to a gun-show-only proposal in a 2009 poll conducted for the same organisation. Either proposal would face up tough sledding on Capitol Hill. It would therefore seem preferable to move forward with the version that is well-nigh likely to reduce the rates of firearm-related violence.[thirteen]

Following the December 14, 2012 Sandy Claw Elementary School massacre, there were numerous calls for universal background checks[14] [15] [16] to close what is at present referred to as the "private auction loophole."[17] [18] [19] In an essay published in 2013, Wintemute said that comprehensive background checks that included private sales would result in a elementary, fair framework for retail firearms commerce.[20] : 103 In February 2014, researchers at the Johns Hopkins Heart for Gun Policy and Research reported that after the 2007 repeal in Missouri of a long-standing law that required all handgun buyers to laissez passer a groundwork bank check there was a 23 percent increment in firearms homicides.[21]

A 2012 study published in the journal Injury Prevention plant that nearly 80% of all firearms used for criminal purposes are obtained through transfers from unlicensed dealers, which are not required to behave background checks in a majority of states due to the private sale exemption.[22]

In 2017, a report by researchers from Northeastern University and the Harvard School of Public Health showed that 22% of American gun owners who had obtained a gun in the previous two years did not undergo a groundwork check before doing then.[23]

Public opinion [edit]

Universal background checks enjoy high levels of public back up; a 2016 representative survey found 86% of registered voters in the United States supported the measure.[24] Five national polls conducted in 2015 testify high levels of support for "expanded background checks for gun purchases," with rates varying (93% and 89% back up in two Quinnipiac University surveys, 92% back up in a CBS/New York Times survey, 86% support in a Gallup survey, 85% support in a Pew Research Middle survey).[25] A 2015 survey plant that more than 90% of Americans supported universal background checks, and that, on average, Americans thought they would be more effective than whatever other gun policy.[26] At that place is evidence that many Americans incorrectly think that universal background checks are required past federal police; a 2016 survey found that 41% of Americans believed this to be the example. The same survey found that 77% of Americans supported universal background checks, while simply 53% supported stricter gun laws. Based on this data, the authors ended that "this difference might exist attributable to poor sensation of the limitations of existing laws."[27]

In 2015, large majorities of American adults, both Republicans (79%) and Democrats (88%), supported groundwork checks for private sales and at gun shows, according to a Pew Research Center survey.[28] In 2017, stiff majorities of American adults, both gun owners (77%) and non-gun owners (87%), supported groundwork checks for private sales and at gun shows, according to a Pew Research Middle survey with an error attributable to sampling of +/- 2.eight% at the 95% level of confidence.[29] In 2018, after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, nearly all Americans supported universal background checks.[30] [31] 88% of registered voters supported universal groundwork checks, according to a Politico/Morning Consult poll with a margin of mistake +/- ii%.[30] 94% of American voters supported universal background checks, according to a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll with a margin of error of +/- 3.4%.[31]

A July 2019 poll past NPR found that 89% of respondents supported background checks for all gun purchases at gun shows or other individual sales.[32] An overwhelming majority of Republicans (84%) and Democrats (96%) indicated their back up, suggesting there is bipartisan popular consensus on the broad topic in the public.[33]

Opposition [edit]

Gun rights groups such every bit the National Rifle Clan and National Shooting Sports Foundation oppose universal background bank check proposals.[34] [35] Opponents of universal background checks argue that existing gun laws are sufficient; that the authorities does not prosecute plenty of the attempted ineligible buyers who are turned away by the current organisation; that groundwork checks are an invasion of privacy; and that "transfer" might be divers besides broadly.[36] Opponents besides maintain that universal background checks would not stop crime[36] [37] and assert that the only way to properly enforce a universal system would exist to require a registration database.[37] Gun-rights abet and writer John Lott argues that universal groundwork checks prevent poorer Americans from acquiring guns. Lott said that, every bit of December 2015, background checks added an effective cost of $80 (New York), $lx (Washington country), or $200 (Washington, D.C.) to transferring a firearm. Lott argues that universal background checks are an effective tax on guns and can foreclose less affluent Americans from purchasing them, and that this disproportionately affects poor minorities who live in loftier-crime urban areas.[38]

Some local counties have adopted Second Amendment sanctuary resolutions in opposition to universal background check laws.[39] [40]

Effectiveness [edit]

Studies [edit]

Universal background check laws were associated with a xiv.ix% reduction in overall homicides, according to a 2019 study past medical researchers including Michael Siegel of the Boston University Schoolhouse of Public Health and David Hemenway of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Wellness published past the Journal of Full general Internal Medicine. The written report authors wrote that "further research is necessary to determine whether these associations are causal ones".[41]

An October 2018 study conducted by the Violence Prevention Inquiry Program (VPRP) at UC Davis and the Center for Gun Policy and Research at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg Schoolhouse of Public Health found no change in firearm homicide or suicide rates in the ten years following California's 1991 implementation of comprehensive background checks. The written report's control group used firearm and not-firearm mortality data for 32 states that did not implement major firearm policies during the period from 1981-2000. In the study flow, firearm suicide rates were 10.9 per centum lower in California only a similar decrease in non-firearm suicide was also observed. The written report found no cyberspace divergence between firearm-related homicide rates before and during the written report menses. The study authors identified a number of possible reasons for the null finding, including inadequate reporting of criminal records or other disqualifying information to background-check databases (especially pre-2000); a failure by sellers to conduct the background check as required past law; and the small number of persons affected by the California police.[42]

Another study by the VPRP found that comprehensive groundwork cheque policies led to increased background checks in Delaware, just not in Colorado or Washington. Not-compliance with the policy may be attributable to the lack of an increase in the latter 2 states.[43]

A written report published in July 2018 establish no association between firearm homicide and suicide rates and the repeal of comprehensive background check laws in two states. The study compared rates from synthetic control groups to rates in Indiana from 1981 to 2008 and in Tennessee from 1994 to 2008. Rates from the two states' written report periods were within the range of natural variability. The written report also concluded that in society to empathise whether comprehensive background checks generally reduce firearm deaths, more show from other states is needed.[44]

A study published in June 2018 in the Periodical of Urban Health past authors affiliated with the Violence Prevention Research Program (VPRP) at UC Davis and the Center for Gun Policy and Enquiry at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg Schoolhouse of Public Wellness establish comprehensive groundwork cheque (CBC) laws not tied to a allow-to-purchase law were associated with an increment in firearm homicide rates but not non-firearm homicide rates.[45] The authors of the study noted, all the same, that they have "identified no plausible theory to explain how requiring a prospective firearm purchaser to undergo a background cheque would result in increased homicide rates."[45] In attempting to explain the unexpected results, the researchers proposed an endogenous relationship such that states passing the CBC-but laws were doing so in response to already rising firearm homicide rates.[45]

A 2016 report published in The Lancet attempted to measure the touch that 25 different state laws had on overall firearm-related mortality, and it found that universal background checks had the strongest overall impact.[46] Additionally, the researchers' projection of a federally implemented universal background check policy predicted that national firearm bloodshed could drib from 10.35 deaths per 100,000 people to 4.46 deaths per 100,000 people.[46] A 2015 study published in the American Journal of Public Health found that a Connecticut police force (enacted in 1995) requiring handgun buyers to undergo a groundwork cheque (in order to obtain a required permit) "was associated with a 40 per centum decline in gun homicides and a 15 pct drop in suicides" during the police force's outset 10 years in result.[47] A 2014 written report published in the Journal of Urban Health found that the 2007 repeal of a "allow-to-buy" handgun law in Missouri (including the repeal of a background-check requirement) was associated with a 23% increase in the firearm homicide charge per unit and a fifteen% increase in the murder rate, translating "to increases of betwixt 55 and 63 homicides per year in Missouri."[48] The study controlled for other variables that might touch homicides, including "changes in rates of unemployment, poverty, incarceration, burglary, constabulary enforcement officers per capita, and the presence of 4 other types of state laws."[48] A 2013 study published in the JAMA Internal Medicine analyzed diverse types of firearm legislation across the U.S. from 2007-2010 and firearm-related deaths across all fifty states, and ended that stronger background checks were associated with lower overall firearm fatality rates.[49]

Scholarly surveys [edit]

In a survey published by the New York Times in Jan 2017, a panel of 32 scholars of criminology, public health, and law rated universal groundwork checks as the virtually constructive policy to prevent gun deaths, ranking it #i of 29 possible gun-related policies (seven.3 on a 10-signal effectiveness scale).[fifty] In a subsequent practiced survey published in October 2017 on policies to adjourn mass shooting deaths specifically, the practiced panel ranked universal checks for gun buyers and universal checks for ammunition buyers as six.6 and 6.5 (on a ten-point effectiveness scale), respectively, ranking them equally the fifth- and 6th-most effective of twenty gun-policy proposals.[51]

A survey by Arthur Berg, Gary Mauser, and John Lott, published in the winter 2019-2020 edition of the Cato Institute quarterly Regulation, asked respondents (38 criminologists, 32 economists, and 50 public health researchers who had published an empirical study on firearms in a peer-reviewed periodical) to rank the effects of 33 firearms policies (xx policies in the New York Times in 2017, plus viii additional policies that would loosen gun regulation, and v boosted restrictive policies) on reducing murder rates and mass shootings. (Berg, Mauser, and Lott asked virtually "murder rates" rather than gun homicides because they fabricated the supposition that stricter gun laws would not bear upon the homicide rate.) Respondents ranked universal background checks 13th and 14th for reducing the murder rate and reducing mass shootings, respectively. Public wellness researchers were substantially likelier than economists and criminologists to charge per unit universal background checks every bit effective.[52]

Implications for mental health counseling [edit]

Universal groundwork check laws, which require that a background check be conducted before any gun transfer, may use to temporary removals of guns from the dwelling of suicidal individuals. Some clinicians accept reported that these laws have created confusion almost whether a gun transfer would be legal, and therefore made it more difficult for them to counsel their patients.[53]

States with universal background check laws [edit]

As of July 2020, 22 states and District of Columbia require groundwork checks for at to the lowest degree some private sales of firearms, as follows:[54]

Jurisdiction Summary from Giffords Law Centre[54]
California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Nevada, New Jersey, New United mexican states, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Virginia,[55] Vermont, Washington, and the Commune of Columbia "Require universal background checks at the indicate of sale for all sales and transfers of all classes of firearms, whether they are purchased from a licensed dealer or an unlicensed seller."[54]
Maryland and Pennsylvania "Require point of sale background checks for handguns but not for long guns, like rifles and shotguns."[54]
Hawaii, Illinois, and Massachusetts "Require all firearm purchasers to obtain a let, issued subsequently a background check, in club to buy any firearm" (this requirement is in lieu of a indicate-of-sale background check)[54]
New Bailiwick of jersey "Requires firearm purchasers to both obtain a allow to purchase a firearm and, if the purchase is from an unlicensed seller, conduct the transaction through a federally-licensed firearms dealer."[54]
Michigan, Nebraska, and Due north Carolina "Allow and background check requirement for handgun purchases but non long-gun purchases."[54]

In Maine, a 2016 plebiscite to crave background checks on individual sales failed subsequently a closely fought campaign, with "yeah" gaining 48.2% of the vote and "no" gaining 52.8% of the vote.[56] [57] In 2014, a referendum in Washington country to require background checks on individual sales (Initiative Measure No. 594) passed,[54] with "yes" gaining 59.3% of the vote and "no" gaining 40.7% of the vote.[58]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ A report released in 2009, 10 years after Columbine, discussed the office that gun shows play in trafficking to United mexican states.[5]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Matthew Miller, Medico, ScD; Lisa Hepburn, PhD; Deborah Azrael, PhD. "Firearm Conquering Without Background Checks". Annals of Internal Medicine . Retrieved February 20, 2017. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  2. ^ "America'due south Gun Shows: Open up Markets for Criminals" (PDF). Coalition to Stop Gun Violence & Educational Fund to Stop Gun Violence. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-11-27.
  3. ^ a b U.S. Department of the Treasury, U.S. Department of Justice (January 1999). "Gun Shows: Brady Checks and Crime Gun Traces" (PDF). atf.gov. Bureau of Booze, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF). Retrieved June 27, 2014. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  4. ^ "Gun Show undercover" (PDF). October 2009. p. 11. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
  5. ^ a b "Firearms Trafficking: U.S. Efforts to Combat Arms Trafficking to Mexico Confront Planning and Coordination Challenges" (PDF). gao.gov. United States Government Accountability Office (GAO). June 2009. GAO-09-709. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
  6. ^ "The debate on gun policies in U.S. and midwest newspapers". Berkeley Media Studies Grouping. January i, 2000.
  7. ^ National Conference of State Legislatures (June ane, 2000). "Colorado After Columbine The Gun Debate". The Free Library by Farlex. Gale Group.
  8. ^ "No Questions Asked: Background Checks, Gun Shows, and Criminal offence" (PDF). Americans for Gun Rubber Foundation. Apr 1, 2001.
  9. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (May 27, 1999). "Statement of Wayne LaPierre, Executive Vice President, National Rifle Association at Pending Firearms Legislation and the Administration'southward Enforcement of Current Gun Laws: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary of the Firm of Representatives I Hundred Sixth Congress First Session". commdocs.house.gov. Washington, D.C. Retrieved July 4, 2014. No loopholes anywhere for anyone.
  10. ^ "Following the Gun: Enforcing Federal Laws Against Firearms Traffickers" (PDF). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). June 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2003.
  11. ^ Olinger, David (February xiii, 2000). "Dealers live for gun shows". Denverpost.com . Retrieved January 29, 2015.
  12. ^ Baum, Dan (June eight, 2000). "What I saw at the gun show". rollingstone.com . Retrieved January 30, 2015.
  13. ^ a b Wintemute, Garen J.; Braga, Anthony A.; Kennedy, David 1000. (August five, 2010). "Private-Party Gun Sales, Regulation, and Public Condom". The New England Journal of Medicine. Massachusetts Medical Society. 363 (6): 508–511. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1006326. PMID 20592291. S2CID 40954102. Published online at nejm.org on June 30, 2010.
  14. ^ Hartfield, Elizabeth (December 24, 2012). "In Gun Control Debate, Arguments for Tougher Background Checks, Better State Reporting". ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
  15. ^ Sullum, Jacob (January xi, 2013). "4 Questions About 'Universal Background Checks' for Gun Purchases". Reason.com (Blog). Reason Foundation. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
  16. ^ More universal sources:
    • Avlon, John (January 12, 2013). "Gun contend still rages after Sandy Claw slaughter". The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
    • Sullivan, Cheryl (January 12, 2013). "Gun debate 101: Time for 'universal' groundwork checks on buyers?". Christian Scientific discipline Monitor . Retrieved June 27, 2014.
    • Martinez, Michael (Jan 28, 2013). "'Universal background check:' What does it mean?". Cable News Network. Retrieved June 27, 2014.
  17. ^ Fisher, Kristin (December 15, 2011). "Illegal Internet Gun Sales are Soaring in Virginia". WUSA9. Archived from the original on February eight, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015. These Internet sales really are the new gun shows.
  18. ^ Shapiro, Eliza (November 29, 2012). "Gun-Control Anteroom Targets Obama, Demands Reform". Daily Beast.
  19. ^ More individual auction loophole sources:
    • Kirkham, Chris (Dec 21, 2012). "Private Gun Auction Loophole Creates Invisible Firearms Marketplace, Prompts Calls For Reform". The Huffington Postal service.
    • "Universal Background Checks & the Private Sale Loophole Policy Summary". Smart Gun Laws. Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. August 21, 2013. Retrieved Jan 28, 2015.
    • Taylor, Marisa (December 22, 2014). "Gun law loophole could have provided Brinsley's murder weapon, say experts". Al Jazeera America. Through something known as the private sale loophole, he could have purchased the firearm in the private market at a gun testify or out of someone's trunk.
    • Dobbs, Taylor (January xvi, 2015). "Gun Rights Group Slams Proposed Legislation". Vermont Public Radio.
  20. ^ Wintemute, Garen J. (2013). "Comprehensive Background Checks for Firearm Sales: Prove from Gun Shows". In Webster, Daniel Westward.; Vernick, Jon Due south. (eds.). Reducing Gun Violence in America. JHU Printing. pp. 95–107. ISBN978-1-4214-1110-one. OCLC 823897002.
  21. ^ Webster, Daniel (Feb 18, 2014). "ID Check Repeal Prompts Spike In Murders, Study Finds". All Things Considered (Interview). Interviewed past Audie Cornish. NPR. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
  22. ^ Vittes, Katherine A.; Vernick, Jon S.; Webster, Daniel W. (2012). "Legal status and source of offenders' firearms in states with the least stringent criteria for gun buying". Injury Prevention. 19 (1): 26–31. doi:ten.1136/injuryprev-2011-040290. ISSN 1475-5785. PMID 22729164.
  23. ^ Miller, Grand; Hepburn, Fifty; Azrael, D (3 January 2017). "Firearm Acquisition Without Background Checks: Results of a National Survey". Register of Internal Medicine. 166 (4): 233–239. doi:10.7326/M16-1590. PMID 28055050.
  24. ^ Bui, Quotrung; Sanger-Katz, Margot (January x, 2017). "How to Foreclose Gun Deaths? Where Experts and the Public Agree". The New York Times . Retrieved August 23, 2019.
  25. ^ Carroll, Lauren (5 Jan 2016). "Laura Ingraham wrongly says claim that 90% support for gun background checks has been debunked". Politifact . Retrieved 7 January 2016.
  26. ^ Sorenson, Susan B. (October 2015). "Assessing views about gun violence reduction policy: A look at type of violence and expected effectiveness". Preventive Medicine. 79: 50–54. doi:x.1016/j.ypmed.2015.04.025. PMID 25952054.
  27. ^ Aronow, Peter Chiliad; Miller, Benjamin T (January 2016). "Policy misperceptions and support for gun control legislation". The Lancet. 387 (10015): 223. doi:ten.1016/S0140-6736(xvi)00042-8. PMID 26842292.
  28. ^ Fingerhut, Hannah (January five, 2016). "5 facts nigh guns in the United States". Pew Research Heart. Retrieved March 29, 2018.
  29. ^ Parker, Kim; Menasce Horowitz, Juliana; Igielnik, Ruth; Oliphant, Baxter; Chocolate-brown, Anna (June 22, 2017). "America's Complex Relationship With Guns". Pew Research Middle. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
  30. ^ a b Shepard, Steven (February 28, 2018). "Gun control support surges in polls". Politician. Retrieved March xix, 2018. Eighty-eight percentage back up requiring background checks on all gun sales.
  31. ^ a b "Poll Release May 22, 2019". Quinnipiac Academy Polling Institute. May 22, 2019. Retrieved September three, 2019. 94 Percent Back Universal Gun Background Checks
  32. ^ "Americans Largely Support Gun Restrictions To 'Do Something' Well-nigh Gun Violence". NPR.org . Retrieved 2020-12-09 .
  33. ^ "Poll: Americans Not Sold On Trump — Or Democrats". NPR.org . Retrieved 2020-12-09 .
  34. ^ Tom Hamburger & Josh Dawsey, "Trump tells NRA chief that universal background checks are off the tabular array", Washington Post (August xx, 2019).
  35. ^ Brendan J. Lyons & Dan Freedman, "Cuomo, 11 other Democratic governors urge tighter gun regulations", Olean Times Herald (September 10, 2019).
  36. ^ a b Good, Chris (April 10, 2013). "The Case Against Gun Background Checks". ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
  37. ^ a b Chiliad&A online editors (May 28, 2013). "NRA Members: Universal Background Checks 'Non a Solution'". Guns & Ammo. Intermedia Outdoors. Retrieved June 30, 2014. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  38. ^ Lott, John (2015-12-03). "Mass Shootings and Gun Control". National Review.
  39. ^ "Daily Bulletin: Students Prep the Side by side Round of Schoolhouse Walkouts for Gun Reform". The Trace . Retrieved 2019-03-09 .
  40. ^ "New United mexican states governor enacts expanded gun groundwork checks". Las Cruces Dominicus-News . Retrieved 2019-03-09 .
  41. ^ Siegel, Michael; Pahn, Molly; Xuan, Ziming; Fleegler, Eric; Hemenway, David (March 28, 2019). "The Impact of State Firearm Laws on Homicide and Suicide Deaths in the Usa, 1991–2016: a Panel Study". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 34 (10): 2021–2028. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-04922-ten. PMC6816623. PMID 30924089.
  42. ^ Castillo-Carniglia, Alvaro; Kagawa, Rose Thousand.C.; Cerdá, Magdalena; Crifasi, Cassandra; Vernick, Jon S; Webster, Daniel W; Wintemute, Garen J. (2019). "California'due south comprehensive background check and misdemeanor violence prohibition policies and firearm mortality". Annals of Epidemiology. xxx: 50–56. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.x.001. PMID 30744830.
  43. ^ Wintemute, Garen J.; Cerdá, Magdalena; Vernick, Jon S.; Webster, Daniel W.; Kagawa, Rose M. C.; Castillo-Carniglia, Alvaro (2018-12-01). "Comprehensive groundwork check policy and firearm background checks in three United states of america states". Injury Prevention. 24 (6): 431–436. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042475. ISSN 1353-8047. PMID 28986427.
  44. ^ Kagawa, Rose G.C.; Castillo-Carniglia, Alvaro; Vernick, Jon S.; Webster, Daniel W.; Crifasi, Cassandra; Rudolph, Kara East.; Cerdá, Magdalena; Shev, Aaron; Wintemute, Garen J. (2018). "Repeal of Comprehensive Groundwork Cheque Policies and Firearm Homicide and Suicide". Epidemiology. 29 (4): 494–502. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000838. PMID 29613872. S2CID 4594013.
  45. ^ a b c Crifasi, C.K., Merrill-Francis, M., McCourt, A. et al. "Association between Firearm Laws and Homicide in Urban Counties." J Urban Health (2018) 95: 383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0273-3
  46. ^ a b Kalesan, Bindu; Mobily, Matthew E; Keiser, Olivia; Fagan, Jeffrey A; Galea, Sandro (2016-04-30). "Firearm legislation and firearm mortality in the USA: a cross-sectional, state-level study". The Lancet. 387 (10030): 1847–1855. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(xv)01026-0. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 26972843. S2CID 21415884.
  47. ^ Rudolph, Kara E.; Stuart, Elizabeth A.; Vernick, Jon Due south.; Webster, Daniel W. (2015). "Clan Betwixt Connecticut'southward Permit-to-Purchase Handgun Law and Homicides". American Journal of Public Wellness. 105 (8): e49–e54. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302703. PMC4504296. PMID 26066959.
  48. ^ a b Webster, Daniel; Kercher Crifasi, Cassandra; Vernick, Jon South. (2014). "Effects of the repeal of Missouri'due south handgun purchaser licensing law on homicides". Journal of Urban Health. 91 (2): 293–302. doi:10.1007/s11524-014-9865-8. PMC3978146. PMID 24604521.
  49. ^ Fleegler, Eric W.; Lee, Lois K.; Monuteaux, Michael C.; Hemenway, David; Mannix, Rebekah (2013-05-13). "Firearm Legislation and Firearm-Related Fatalities in the United States". JAMA Internal Medicine. 173 (ix): 732–twoscore. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.1286. ISSN 2168-6106. PMID 23467753.
  50. ^ Quoctrung Bui & Margot Sanger-Katz (January 10, 2017). "How to Preclude Gun Deaths? Where Experts and the Public Hold". New York Times.
  51. ^ Margot Sanger-Katz & Quoctrung Bui. (October 5, 2017). "Experts poll on reducing mass shooting deaths". New York Times.
  52. ^ Lott, John R. and Berg, Dr., Arthur and Mauser, Gary A., Expert Views on Gun Laws, Regulation (Winter 2019-2020).
  53. ^ McCourt, AD; Vernick, JS; Betz, ME; Brandspigel, S; Runyan, CW (one January 2017). "Temporary Transfer of Firearms From the Home to Prevent Suicide: Legal Obstacles and Recommendations". JAMA Internal Medicine. 177 (i): 96–101. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5704. PMID 27842186.
  54. ^ a b c d due east f g h Universal Background Checks, Giffords Police Centre to Prevent Gun Violence (accessed January 1, 2020).
  55. ^ "Universal Background Checks". Giffords . Retrieved 2020-12-09 .
  56. ^ Kevin Miller, "Proposed expansion of gun groundwork checks defeated", Portland Printing Herald (November eight, 2016).
  57. ^ "Nov 8, 2016 Referendum Election: Official Results", Maine Section of the Secretarial assistant of Land, Bureau of Corporations, Elections & Commissions.
  58. ^ "November 4, 2014 Full general Election Results: Initiative Measure No. 594: Concerns background checks for firearm sales and transfers", Washington Secretary of Country.

Farther reading [edit]

  • Editorial board (February xviii, 2014). "Missouri study shows why we need universal gun background checks". Chicago Sunday-Times. Sun-Times Media. Retrieved June xxx, 2014.
  • Krouse, William J. (March 1, 2013). "Gun Control Proposals in the 113th Congress: Universal Groundwork Checks, Gun Trafficking, and Military machine Style Firearms" (PDF). U.Southward. Department of State . Retrieved February 17, 2015.

How Have Background Checks Changed Over The Years,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_background_check

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